Medieval manuscripts blog

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9 posts from October 2024

31 October 2024

Medieval witches

While we were developing our exhibition Medieval Women: In Their Own Words, the most common question we were asked was, “Will you be including witches?” Although many people think of the Middle Ages as a time when women were widely persecuted as witches, in fact witchcraft trials were rare before 1500. The European “witch craze” only reached its peak in the early modern period, during the late 16th and 17th centuries. Still, the late Middle Ages was the time when many myths about witchcraft first developed. We always aim to please, so this Halloween we’re pleased to announce: yes, we’re including witches!

Medieval woodcut images of two women dropping snakes into a fiery cauldron with stormy clouds overhead
Witches using magic to cause a storm, from Ulrich Molitor, De lamiis et phitonicis mulieribus (On Witches and Female Soothsayers) (1495)

In 1486, notorious inquisitor Heinrich Kramer published a book called Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Witches). This guide to identifying and prosecuting witches codified many ideas about witchcraft that became influential in later witch trials: that witches are predominantly women, that they enter pacts with demons, that they use magic to cause impotence, crop failure, disease and death of livestock and people. Yet the Malleus Malificarum was the culmination of a development that took place throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, when several strands of thought about magic, spirituality and women came together into one disastrous stereotype. In this blogpost, we explore these various strands as well as the stories of some of the earliest accused witches.

Midwives and herbalists

From the earliest times, women were important healthcare providers. In the absence of any formal healthcare system, informal networks of female practitioners provided medical cures and assisted women during pregnancy and childbirth. Methods of treatment ranged from blood-letting to herbal remedies to magical charms. Sometimes they would use their skills for non-medical purposes, such as supplying love charms, finding lost objects and predicting the future.

Medieval drawing of a woman placing round cups on the back of a naked man
A female medical practitioner performing cupping therapy on a man, Sloane MS 6

The male medical elite looked down on female practitioners. The English surgeon and medical writer John Arderne (d. c. 1377), for example, wrote dismissively of “þe medycinez of ladiez” (the medicines of ladies), which, he said, made patients worse. We can see how the woman healer whose practices spanned the medical and the occult became a figure of distrust and derision in John Lydgate’s The Pilgrimage of Man. In this moralising verse account of an allegorical journey, the pilgrim “everyman” meets an old hag who, it turns out, is the personification of sorcery. This unpleasant character is peddling inscriptions, images, ointments, herbs and astrological readings, which she uses for malicious ends. The pilgrim asks her, “Tell on without more tarrying, where learnest thou all thy cunning?” She replies, “Soothly as I rehearse can, I learned my cunning off Satan”.

Medieval illustration of a pilgrim meeting an old woman. She has a basket on her head and she holds a severed human hand
The pilgrim meets the personification of Sorcery, in John Lydgate, The Pilgrimage of Man: Cotton MS Tiberius A VII, f. 69r

Sorceresses and the devil

In the Middle Ages witchcraft was not a secular crime, but from the 14th century it came to be regarded as a form of heresy making it punishable by the Church. The heresy trials of the Order of the Knights Templar beginning in 1307, designed by Philip IV of France as a means to destroy the powerful order, included trumped-up accusations of sorcery, devil worship and performing sexual acts with demons. Many Templars confessed under torture, the order was disbanded and the leaders burned at the stake. These trials set an important precedent for establishing sorcery as evidence of heresy and paved the way for the persecution of women associated with magic.

Medieval illustration of two men being burned at the stake surrounded by onlookers
Burning of the Templars, from the Chroniques de France ou de St Denis, BL Royal MS 20 C vii, f. 48r

In 1324, perhaps inspired by the trials of the Templars, one of the earliest known witchcraft trials in Europe took place. The accused was Alice Kyteler of Kilkenny in Ireland, whose three wealthy husbands had all died mysteriously leaving her with a great fortune. Richard Ledred, bishop of Ossory, pursued the case after Alice’s stepchildren accused her of using sorcery to infatuate and kill her husbands. Seven lurid charges were made against her, including that Alice summoned demons, brewed potions and had a sexual relationship with a demon incubus named Robin Artisson. Alice fled to England and evaded punishment, but her maidservant Petronella of Meath was tortured and burned at the stake as an accomplice.

Visionaries and demons

The association between women and supernatural influences was also informed by their prominent role as spiritual visionaries in medieval religious culture. It was believed that visionaries were able to witness glimpses of the supernatural world and communicate with spiritual beings such as God, saints or angels to gain hidden knowledge. While visionaries could be male or female, women were particularly attracted to the visionary path as it was one of the few ways that they could claim individual religious authority. Some female visionaries recorded their experiences and created important works of religious literature, including Hildegard of Bingen, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Julian of Norwich.

Medieval illustration of a kneeling woman before an altar, with the Holy Trinity appearing above
A woman experiencing a spiritual vision, Yates Thompson MS 11, f. 29r

Yet a career as a female visionary could be risky. Many churchmen were concerned that holy women might be receiving visions not from God but from the Devil. They considered that women were particularly susceptible to supernatural influences, including those of a more malevolent nature. As Heinrich Kramer explained in the Malleus Malificarum:

“Women are naturally more impressionable, and more ready to receive the influence of a disembodied spirit; [...] when they use this quality well they are very good, but when they use it ill they are very evil” (translation by M. Summers, 1971).

Church authorities developed elaborate systems to determine whether a reported vision was truly from God. Those whose visions were deemed to be from the Devil, especially those who gained power and knowledge from him, could be accused of witchcraft and heresy.

One of the most famous visionary women to be accused of witchcraft was Joan of Arc. During the Hundred Years War between England and France, the illiterate peasant girl received visions of saints and angels who told her to help the Dauphin Charles accede to the throne of France. She became the hero of the French army at the siege of Orleans, before being captured by the Burgundian-English alliance and tried for heresy. During the trial, the inquisitors accused her of visiting a “fairy tree” near her village of Domrémy, where she supposedly danced and adored the fairies. They concluded that Joan’s visions were not of saints but of evil spirits, such as Belial, Satan and Behemoth. She was found guilty and burned at the stake in 1431.

A decorated initial with an armoured knight
A decorated initial with an armoured knight, perhaps Joan of Arc, from the Rehabilitation Trial of Joan of Arc: Stowe MS 84, f. 2r

The English were particularly keen to remember Joan as a witch. The Brut chronicle, one of the most popular accounts of English history in the medieval and early modern periods, refers to Joan as “the wicche of Fraunce” (the witch of France), and claims that “By her crafte of sorserie alle the Frensshe men and her compeny trystid for to haue ouyrcome alle the Engelisshe pepull” (By her craft of sorcery, all the French men and her company trusted that they would overcome all the English people).

Political witches

Political motivations also underlie many of the other high profile witchcraft accusations of the period. Perhaps the biggest witchcraft scandal in medieval England centred on Eleanor Cobham (d. 1452), Duchess of Gloucester. Eleanor rose from a position in the lower gentry to become one of the most powerful women in England as the mistress and then wife of Humfrey, Duke of Gloucester. Humfrey was the uncle and heir of King Henry VI of England, meaning that he and Eleanor could have become king and queen if Henry had died young.

Medieval miniature portrait of Eleanor and Humphrey, richly dressed and presenting gifts to St Albans Abbey
Eleanor Cobham and her husband Humfrey, Duke of Gloucester, from the St Albans Benefactors’ Book, Cotton MS Nero D VII, f. 154r

Eleanor fell victim to court politics in 1441 when she was accused of encouraging a group of scholars to make horoscopes predicting the untimely death of the king, and employing a woman named Margery Jourdemain, “the Witch of Eye”, to perform sorcery for her. At her trial, Eleanor denied plotting against the king, although she did admit to buying fertility remedies from Margery Jourdemain to help her to conceive a child with Humfrey. Both Eleanor and Margery were found guilty of heresy. Eleanor was made to perform humiliating public penance, divorce Humfrey and spend the rest of her life in imprisonment. Margery, who had been in trouble with the authorities for witchcraft before, was burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic.

A medieval horoscope in the form of a square diagram with inscriptions
Horoscope of Henry VI, Egerton MS 889, f. 5r

Eleanor Cobham was not the only woman connected with the English royal family who was accused of witchcraft in the 15th century. Earlier in the century, Joan of Navarre (d. 1437), widow of King Henry IV of England, was accused of witchcraft as a thin excuse to confiscate her money and lands to help pay for Henry V’s war with France. Later, the Titulus Regius of 1484 justified Richard III seizing the throne of England from his young nephew by claiming that the marriage of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville came about through “Sorcerie and Wichecrafte, committed by the said Elizabeth, and her Moder” (sorcery and witchcraft committed by the said Elizabeth and her mother).

These accusations show the great fear directed at women who were active in English politics, particularly those who challenged the status quo by marrying into the royal family for love rather than diplomacy, and — in the case of Eleanor Cobham and Elizabeth Woodville — climbing the social ladder from relatively obscure backgrounds. In each of these examples, including Alice Kyteler and Joan of Arc, accusations of witchcraft proved to be a convenient tactic for discrediting an ambitious and influential woman in a way that was impossible for her to disprove.

Medieval manuscripts portrait of Elizabeth Woodville, crowned and gorgeously dressed in a dress of red and ermine with a blue cloak. She is surrounded by flowers
Elizabeth Woodville from the Book of the Fraternity of the Assumption of Our Lady of the Skinners of London, The London Archives, CLC/L/SE/A/004A/MS31692

Women healers, visionaries, heretics and accused witches all feature in our Medieval Women exhibition. You can encounter unique historical manuscripts relating to Joan of Arc, Eleanor Cobham and Elizabeth Woodville, and you can even have a go at our digital interactive “Are You a Witch?”, based on criteria from the Malleus Malificarum.

Medieval Women: In Their Own Words is on show at the British Library from 25 October 2024 to 2 March 2025. You can book your tickets online.

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

Eleanor Jackson

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29 October 2024

Keeping a cat and other rules for anchoresses

Our exhibition Medieval Women: In Their Own Words highlights the stories of women across medieval society, from labourers and artisans to abbesses and queens. Some of the most unique experiences were had by anchoresses, religious women such as Julian of Norwich (d. after 1416), Christine Carpenter (fl. 1329-1332) and Margaret Kirkby (d. c. 1391-4), who chose to enclose themselves permanently in cells attached to churches. There they lived lives of prayer, contemplation and devotion to God.

Several surviving texts provide guidance to anchoresses about how to live their lives. One handbook, known as Ancrene Wisse, was composed in the first decades of the 13th century, supposedly for three sisters who had chosen to enter the contemplative life. One of the earliest and most important surviving manuscripts of this text (Cotton MS Cleopatra C VI) is on display in the exhibition. The Middle English work not only offers anchoresses spiritual advice, but also practical instructions about all aspects of their daily routine, outlining the rules they are expected to observe, from their food and drink to their clothes and possessions, and even the pets they could own.

A page from the earliest surviving manuscript of Ancrene Wisse.

The earliest surviving manuscript of Ancrene Wisse; England, c. 1225-1230: Cotton MS Cleopatra C VI, f. 193r

Here is a selection of these rules that give a taste of what life as an anchoress might have looked like:

Life in the Anchorhold

  • An anchoress’s cell should only have three windows: a church window, that provides a view into the church to see the Eucharist, a house window, to allow for food and other goods to be brought in, and a parlour window for dealing with the outside world. These windows should be as small as possible, and closed when not in use.
  • Anchoresses are not allowed to preach and can only offer advice to women. They are also not allowed to criticise men for their vices, the exception being ‘holy old anchoresses’ who may do it in a certain way (the text does not elaborate).
  • Anchoresses should not curse or swear.
  • Anchoresses must not become teachers or turn the anchorhold into a school.
  • They should neither send letters, nor receive letters, nor write without leave.
  • Anchoresses are allowed maidservants – Julian of Norwich is known to have had two, called Sarah and Alice – but they have to observe strict rules.

A historiated initial of a bishop enclosing an anchoress.

The enclosure of an anchoress by a bishop; London, 15th century: Lansdowne MS 451, f. 76v

Diet, Sleep and Hygiene

  • Anchoresses must not use meat or fat in their meals but instead observe a diet of vegetable stew and be accustomed to drink very little.
  • Eating with guests outside the anchorhold is not allowed, and men are barred from eating in the anchoress’s presence.
  • Anchoresses and their maidservants should not eat or snack outside of mealtimes.
  • No one else is allowed to sleep in the anchoress’s home, and anchoresses must only sleep in their beds.
  • Washing is encouraged! Anchoresses can wash themselves and their things as often as they like.
  • Anchoresses must have their hair cut, shaved or trimmed four times a year.
  • Bloodletting is permitted (a common medieval medical treatment), but the guide warns that afterwards, the anchoress should do nothing strenuous for three days and pass the time with her servants, sharing ‘theawfule talen’ (virtuous stories) together.
  • When unwell, anchoresses should not take remedies advised by ‘uncundelich lechecreft’ (unnatural healing), in case they make things worse.

Clothing

  • Clothing should be plain, warm and well-made.
  • A covering should be worn upon the head, either a wimple or a simple cap.
  • In winter, an anchoress’s shoes should be soft, large, and warm, while in summer, light shoes can be worn, or there is the option to walk barefoot.
  • Anchoresses should not own rings, brooches, patterned belts and gloves or any other kind of adornments.

A cat in the margins of the Luttrell Psalter.

The only animal an anchoress was allowed to keep was a cat: Add MS 42130, f. 190r

Manual Work and Possessions

  • Anchoresses should not conduct business. An anchoress who is fond of bargaining ‘chepeth hire sawle the chap-mon of helle’ (sells her soul to the peddler of Hell).
  • They should not make embroidered items like purses, caps, silk bandages or lace as a means of making friends. If they want to sew, they can make church vestments or mend clothes for the poor.
  • Anchoresses can receive gifts from ‘good people’, but they should not take anything from those they do not trust. Examples of untrustworthy people include those with ‘fol semblant’ (foolish pretences) or ‘wake wordes’ (idle chatter).
  • Anchoresses are not allowed to look after other people’s possessions, including clothes, boxes, charters or tally sticks, indentures, church vestments and chalices.
  • No pets allowed! Anchoresses are told ‘ne schule ye habben nan beast bute cat ane’ (you should not keep any animals, except a single cat), so they do not invest too much thought on their welfare. If an anchoress must have an animal, then it should not bother or harm anyone and she should not think too much about it, as an ‘ancre ne ah to habben na thing thet ut-ward drahe hire heorte’ (‘an anchoress should not have anything which draws away her heart’).

Ancrene Wisse was one of the more popular medieval anchoritic handbooks – at least 17 manuscripts of the text survive, with translations in Middle English, Anglo-Norman French and Latin – but whether these rules represented a reality for all anchoresses is difficult to judge. There may have been other advisory texts available to guide them, some less stringent than others. One can also imagine the individual relationships anchoresses had with their communities meant that a life of restriction and near-total seclusion was harder to adhere to. Nonetheless, the rules Ancrene Wisse sets out give us a sense of what these women were knowingly committing to when then entered the contemplative life.

An illustration of an anchoress in her anchorhold.

An anchoress inside her anchorhold; London, c. 1400-1410: Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 079, f. 96r

To learn more about the lives of anchoresses, visit our major exhibition Medieval Women: In Their Own Words, which runs from 25 October 2024 until 2 March 2025, at St Pancras in London. Tickets are available to order now!

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

Calum Cockburn

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27 October 2024

Medieval Women events

Alongside our Medieval Women exhibition, we are delighted to announce a series of public events, featuring prominent speakers and focusing on themes connected with our show. The full listing can be found on our online events page.

On 29 October, Kate Mosse, novelist, playwright and campaigner, and author of Labyrinth and Warrior Queens & Quiet Revolutionaries, will pick her highlights from the voices and lives showcased in the exhibition, in Here and Now: Meet the Medieval Women. Kate will be joined by musician Kate Arnold in an exclusive live performance of medieval lyrics accompanied by the hammered dulcimer.

Portrait of Kate Mosse

Then, on 8 November, the exhibition curators will join historian Helen Castor in conversation, giving insights into how the show was put together, in Medieval Women: the Curators' Lunchtime Lecture

On 11 November, we are delighted to welcome Hetta Howes, talking about her new book, Poet, Mystic, Widow, Wife, in conversation with Helen Carr, in The Extraordinary Lives of Medieval Women.

Poet  Mystic  Widow  Wife

We have a panel discussion on 18 November, Medieval Get Ready With Me, when Anita Bhagwandas, Jill Burke and Amber Butchart will be exploring the history of cosmetics, fragrances and treatments.

Our final event that month is The Ordinary Lives of Medieval Women, on 28 November, when historical novelist Philippa Gregory will be joined in conversation by presenter and journalist Sangita Myska, telling the stories of the 'ordinary' medieval women who went to war, tilled the fields, wrote, loved, committed crimes, cooked, nursed and rioted. But not necessarily all at once.

Philippa Gregory

Later in the year and into 2025, our speakers include Janina Ramirez and Lauren Groff, as well as theatrical and musical performances.

We hope you can join us either in person or online, and that you are able to visit our major exhibition, Medieval Women: In Their Own Words, at the British Library until 2 March 2025 (tickets can be booked in advance here).

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

 

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25 October 2024

Medieval Women well and truly open

Fanfare, please! We are thrilled to say that the British Library's major new exhibition, Medieval Women: In Their Own Words, is now open to the public. The first ticket-holders are starting to go through the doors, and we hope thousands more will follow them in the coming months.

Statue of Eleanor of Castile

It's about time, we think, that medieval women took the spotlight. Margery Kempe (died in 1438) wrote the first autobiography in the English language. Her contemporary, Joan of Arc (burned in 1431), led armies to victory in a male-dominated world. Marta, an enslaved Russian woman, was sold in the marketplace in Venice in 1450. Shajar al-Durr (died in 1257) was the first woman to rule in Mamluk Egypt. Margery Brews wrote the first Valentine letter in 1477. Sibylle of Flanders (died in 1163) refused to return home with her husband from Jerusalem. Margaret of Anjou (died in 1482) owned a pet Barbary lion. Gwerful Mechain (lived in the late 1400s) wrote explicit poetry. Joan Astley asked Henry VI for a pay rise in 1423/4. Margaret, Maid of Norway (died in 1290), aged just seven, was to be betrothed to an English prince. Estellina Conat was the first woman to print a book in Hebrew, in 1474. Margaret Starre took part in the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. Joan of Beverley embroidered an altar band in the 14th century.

Our exhibition features an incredible range of manuscripts, documents and early printed books from the Library's collections, alongside some amazing loans from other institutions. Medieval Women is the culmination of many months' hard work behind the scenes, by colleagues in our Exhibitions, Loans, Conservation, Marketing, Press, Publishing, Events, Learning, Commercial and Visitor Services teams — not to mention the curators (Ellie, Julian, Calum) and our other colleagues. We hope you have the chance to visit our exhibition in person, to attend one of the events, or to buy the book. We like to think that the medieval women whose stories we tell would have been delighted to make your acquaintance.

A page from the Talbot Shrewsbury Book

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

 

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24 October 2024

Medieval Women: the items on display

Medieval Women: In Their Own Words is on show at the British Library in London from 25 October 2024–2 March 2025.

A page from the manuscript of Julian of Norwich's Revelations of Divine Love

The manuscript of Julian of Norwich's Revelations of Divine Love: Add MS 37790

On display is an extraordinary array of manuscripts, documents, early printed books, paintings, coins, textiles and objects associated with women from across medieval Europe. They feature unique items from the British Library's own collections, alongside major loans from the Louvre, the British Museum, the Victoria & Albert Museum, and other institutions. We are extremely grateful to our lenders for making this exhibition possible.

Portrait of Margaret of York

Portrait of Margaret of York (d. 1503): on loan to the Medieval Women exhibition from Musée du Louvre

You can explore some of the items in the exhibition in more detail here.

Coin of Shajar al-Durr

A gold coin of Shajar al-Durr, the first female sultan of Egypt: on loan to the Medieval Women exhibition from the British Museum

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

 

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19 October 2024

Countdown to Medieval Women

Our major new exhibition, Medieval Women: In Their Own Words, opens on 25 October 2024. In hot anticipation, here are some ways you can get involved, and a sneak preview of the gallery to whet your appetite.

The entrance to the gallery

Tickets can be purchased in advance here or in person at the British Library, with a large range of concessions available.

The exhibition book, Medieval Women: Voices and Visions, edited by Eleanor Jackson & Julian Harrison, with a foreword by Kate Mosse, can be ordered in advance from the British Library Shop. The perfect birthday or Christmas present! Maybe we can even tempt you to buy our Medieval Women Christmas jumper.

We have an exciting programme of events, starting with Kate Mosse, Here and Now: Meet the Medieval Women, on 29 October (in person and online).

Meanwhile, our Learning team has organised school workshops and tours, and you can find more information about them here.

Eleanor of Castile

Books in the exhibition

IMG_0386

Installing a roll

Medieval seal

Birthing girdle

Mortuary roll

Medieval charter

Talbot Shrewsbury Book

Medieval Women: In Their Own Words runs from 25 October 2024 until 2 March 2025, at St Pancras in London. We'd be delighted to see you there, as we uncover the stories of women from the past, from across Europe, and from all walks of life.

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

 

 

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17 October 2024

Maidens or monsters?

During the Middle Ages, some of the most popular and well-loved stories were about classical women, female saints and heroines of courtly romance.  In a new British Library publication, Maidens or Monsters? Tales of Amazons, Goddesses, Queens & Temptresses in Medieval Manuscripts, Chantry Westwell delves into the stories of these women, exploring their portrayal by medieval authors and illuminators. 

The book is divided into six sections dedicated to female warriors and murderesses, women of virtue and faith, power, and tragedy, as well as enigmatic and allegorical women taken from myth and legend. Their accounts are accompanied by some of the most exquisite examples of medieval art, reproduced from within the pages of manuscripts from the eighth to the 16th centuries, mostly from the British Library’s collections.

The front cover of Maidens of Monsters.

The six sections are as follows: 

I: Warriors, Murderesses and Femmes Fatales

The first section of the book features stories of the legendary Amazon Women led by their Queen Penthesilea, the Colchian witch Medea, who takes her revenge on the Greek hero Jason, Minerva, goddess of war and Salome, who danced for Herod, then asked for the head of John the Baptist on a platter. 

A group of Amazon Women riding into battle alongside their Queen Penthesilea.

Queen Penthesilea leads the Amazon Women into battle, from Christine de Pizan’s ‘Book of the Queen’ (Paris, c. 1410-c. 1414): Harley MS 4431/1, f. 103v

II: Holy Women

The second section focuses on the lives and stories of holy women, from Mary Magdalene and St Margaret of Antioch, who emerges from a dragon’s belly to St Helena, mother of Constantine the Great and a remarkable group of desert saints known as the Holy Harlots.

A naked St Mary of Egypt is handed a cloak by St Zozima.

St Mary of Egypt is handed a cloak by St Zosima, from in the Theodore Psalter (Constantinople, 1066): Add MS 19352, f. 68r.

III: Powerful Women

Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, Olympias of Macedon, and Candace of Ethiopia are among those featured in this section dedicated to women who wielded real power in their lifetimes but were not always treated fairly by historians and chroniclers, who tended to portray them as manipulative temptresses rather than as skilful politicians or rulers.

The Egyptian Nectanebo disguised as a serpent or dragon seducing Olympias.

The Egyptian Nectanebo disguised as a serpent seducing Olympias, in the Roman d’Alexandre en prose (‘Prose Alexander Romance’), from the Talbot Shrewsbury Book (Rouen, c. 1445): Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 6r

IV: Tragic Heroines

This section looks at women whose stories ended in great tragedy: from the romantic heroine Elvide and the classical Lucretia who both die for their honour, to the Persian Shirin who takes her own life on her husband’s grave, and the story of the Biblical Eve, blamed for the downfall of humanity, exiled from paradise, before experiencing terrible family tragedy.

A miniature of the suicide of Shirin.

The suicide of Shirin at Khusraw’s tomb, in Nizami, Khamsah (India, 1595): Or 12208, f. 102r

V: Partners and Lovers

The women in the fifth section of the book were all partners of famous men, but nonetheless captured the limelight in their stories.  Among them are Camelot’s Guinevere and the legendary Helen of Troy, as well as the Old Testament Delilah, Dante’s Beatrice from the Divine Comedy and Humayun, the Chinese princess of Persian folklore.

Beatrice and Dante before the angels, from a manuscript of the Divine Comedy

Beatrice showing Dante the orders of angels and saints in Dante, Paradiso (Tuscany, c. 1445): Yates Thompson MS 36, f. 180r

VI:  Mystical, Magical and Allegorical Women

The final section looks at the stories of mystical and magical women, from the fairy Melusine, who transforms into a fish, to the mermaids, who lured sailors from their ships, and the divine Sibyls, known for their prophecies, along with other fantastical female characters.

Two sirens swimming beside a ship and luring sailors.

Two Sirens swim beside a ship with sailors who are under their spell, from the Queen Mary Psalter (London, c. 1315): Royal MS 2 B VII, f. 96v

It becomes clear when reading these tales that women were not always treated fairly or in a positive light by medieval historians and storytellers, most of whom were, of course, men. A counter to this was Christine de Pizan (b. 1364, d. c. 1430), a professional author based at the French royal court during the 14th and early 15th centuries, who argued forcefully in her writings for the intellectual and moral equality of women. Her Book of the City of Ladies was an impassioned defence of women, in which she recounted the stories of these heroines, and imagined herself building a metaphorical city from their achievements. It was Christine who provided the inspiration for this book.

The goddess Venus appears before her courtiers, who offer her their hearts.

The goddess Venus presiding over her courtiers, who give her their hearts, from Christine de Pizan’s ‘Book of the Queen’ (Paris, c. 1410-c. 1414): Harley MS 4431/1, f. 100r

Maidens or Monsters? Amazons and Goddesses, Queens and Temptresses in Medieval Legend is available to order now from the British Library Shop.

Chantry Westwell

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04 October 2024

Medieval Women exhibition book available now!

There’s just one month to go until the opening of our new exhibition Medieval Women: In Their Own Words. We can’t wait for visitors to come and explore the rich and complex lives of women in the Middle Ages!

If you can’t wait either, then you might be excited to learn that the exhibition book, Medieval Women: Voices & Visions, is now available for pre-order from the British Library’s online bookshop. All orders will be dispatched after 25 October, the exhibition's opening date.

Photo of the book, entitled 'Medieval Women: Voices and Visions'. The cover image shows a group of nuns taken from a medieval manuscript

Drawing on the exhibition items, the book takes a deeper dive into the lives and times of women in Europe in the period of roughly 1100–1500. It begins with a preface by International bestselling author and British Library board member Kate Mosse, followed by an introduction by the exhibition’s lead curator, Eleanor Jackson. The book contains nine chapters exploring over-arching themes, and forty-three short ‘spotlights’ that shine a light on particular women, events and issues, all written by experts in the field.

The volume is divided into four main sections reflecting women’s contributions right across medieval society: ‘Private Lives’, exploring women’s bodies, health, households and family life; ‘Public Lives’, focusing on women’s power and political involvement; ‘Working Lives’, revealing women’s work and creativity; and ‘Spiritual Lives’, uncovering women’s experiences as visionaries, heretics, and in religious communities. It tells the stories of a wide variety of women: from queens to peasants, nuns to sex-workers, physicians to artists.

Contents page of the book, with chapters on 'Private Lives', 'Public Lives', 'Working Lives' and 'Spiritual Lives'

Sumptuously illustrated, the book is a feast for the eyes. There are images of most of the items on display in the exhibition, and many more!

One of the spreads in the book, showing illustrations of an illuminated manuscript and a charter

You can pre-order your copy of the Medieval Women exhibition book now on the British Library website.

The exhibition Medieval Women: In Their Own Words is open at the British Library from 25 October 2024 to 2 March 2025. You can pre-book your tickets online now.

This exhibition is made possible with support from Joanna and Graham Barker, Unwin Charitable Trust, and Cockayne – Grants for the Arts: a donor advised fund held at the London Community Foundation.

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