The most renowned Hispanic cults of the Virgin Mary belong to Our Lady of Montserrat in Catalonia, Our Lady of the Pillar (el Pilar) in Zaragoza and Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico, which goes back to an apparition of 1531. She was well loved in Spain as well as the Empire, as witness:

Gabriel de Talavera, Historia de nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (Toledo, 1597). 4805.d.1.

But much less famous places had their local cult of the Virgin, such as Guaitoca (Guaytoca) near Guadalcanal in the Sierra Morena.

On the morning of 5 January 1790 a small fleet set sail from Cartagena on the southeast coast of Spain. In command was the eminent Majorcan captain Don Antonio Barceló (1717-97). He had carved a brilliant career in the fight against Moorish pirates from Algiers, particularly on the mail run from Barcelona to Palma. In 1766 he rescued some Spanish captives off Alicante who presented him with an ex-voto of Our Lady of Montserrat.

Don Antonio Barceló. 19th century copy of an 18th-century portrait (Image from Wikimedia Commons)

In the 1770s Barceló was tasked with protecting ships on the first leg of the voyage out to the Indies. (Here we see the connection with the cult of the Virgin and Latin America which will become clearer in a moment.) In 1779-83 he masterminded the ultimately abortive Siege of Gibraltar.

The adventures of 1790 come late in his career, and are recounted in a chapbook:

Nuevo y curioso romance en donde da cuenta y declara el caso que le aconteci[ó] á Don Antonio Barceló saliendo con su armad[a] del puerto de Cartagena ...  (S.l., 1790?) 1074.g.23.(94.). Whitehead N25.

The pirates, led by the renegade Barbique, attacked off the coast of Sicily: the battles lasted three days and “even the fishes cried out” [Hasta las peces braman].

Barceló instructed his sailors to throw themselves into the water rather than be taken alive.

But then Barceló thought to kneel before an effigy [efigie] of Nuestra Señora de Guaytoca. Inspired, he took two fuses and climbed to the crow’s nest, no mean feat at 73.

The Spaniards were down the last of their powder, when three ships of the Buenos Aires line appeared and Spain was victorious.

Thus although Spain ascribed some of her greatest victories to the Virgin Mary not all were the work of Our Lady of Guadalupe.

Barry Taylor, Curator Romance Studies

References

Diccionario biográfico español, VI, 808-11 HLR 920.046

H. G. Whitehead, Eighteenth-century Spanish chapbooks in the British Library: a descriptive catalogue (London, 1997) RAR 094.30946

Benito Gil Bezerra, Paraíso de oraciones sagradas (Barcelona, 1739), pp. 630-42 

 

For centuries all cryptosystems had a linguistic orientation. However after the First World War cryptography entered the era of mechanisation and as a result cipher machines were built with the set of rotors as a primary component. They were used for encrypting and decrypting secret messages. To break their ciphers mathematical knowledge was needed.

The Enigma, the most famous example of the cipher machine, was created by the Germans at the end of the First World War. It was used for commercial and military purposes, although the two versions differ significantly. In the late 1920s Germany had the most sophisticated communications in the world. The British, French and Americans tried to tackle the Enigma cipher but failed to break it. One country, however, desperate to monitor German secret messages, achieved considerable results. This was Poland.

Sandwiched between two powerful neighbours, Soviet Union to the east and Germany to the west, Poland, a newly-created state after the First World War, was in great need of finding a way to ensure her security. The success of the Polish-Soviet war of 1919-1920 was due to intelligence activities in which Polish cryptographers played a crucial role. To continue the work on cryptology seemed to be an obvious choice.

Memorial at Bletchley Park commemorating three Polish mathematicians. (Photo by Magda Szkuta)

Polish Intelligence was successful in cracking the German military ciphers until the German cryptograms began to change in 1926. The Poles quickly realized that they were machine-enciphered and identified the machine as the Enigma. A commercial model purchased by the Polish Cipher Bureau was however different from the German military Enigma. Unable to decipher military messages and to reconstruct the machine they decided to turn to a mathematical approach. In 1932 a team of young mathematicians from the University of Poznań was set up. Among them were the main code breakers Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski. It was Rejewski who first cracked the Enigma code, in only ten weeks. His excellent mathematical education, fluent command of German, exceptional intuition and completion of a course in cryptology, together with the intelligence information he received from the French Secret Service, led to his success. The first messages were deciphered as early as Christmas 1932.

Cover of Z.J. Kapera, Marian Rejewski: the man who defeated Enigma. (Krakow, 2013) YD.2014.a.1832

Rejewski was now joined by Różycki and Zygalski. Their contributions included the Różycki clock and the Zygalski sheets Subsequently the Poles were able to replicate the Enigma machine and design mechanical devices which allowed them to break the Enigma code. A crucial device which made it possible to reconstruct daily codes in two hours was the cyclometer. It was substantially developed by Alan Turing in the Second World War. In 1938 the German cryptographers increased Enigma’s security and the Poles’ techniques no longer worked. There were no resources to carry out further work either. By that time the Polish cryptographers had read about 75% of intercepted German Radio communications. This was kept strictly confidential.

Cover of Z.J. Kapera, The triumph of Zygalski’s sheets: the Polish Enigma in the early 1940. (Kraków, 2015). YD.2016.a.4085

In July 1939, with the German invasion of Poland imminent, the Poles invited French and British code breakers for a secret meeting near Warsaw. The Polish team disclosed their Enigma results and handed their allies-to-be copies of the Enigma machine. On 1 September the war broke out. The three genius mathematicians fled Poland and later joined the French cryptographers in France. The knowledge they had provided considerably contributed to the cracking of the more complicated wartime Enigma codes used by the Germans. This happened at Bletchley Park. The breaking of Enigma had a significant impact on the course of the Second World War. It is believed that it shortened the war by two years and saved countless lives.

An original Enigma machine is currently on display in the British Library outside the Alan Turing Institute.

Magda Szkuta, Curator of East European Collections

References/Further reading:

David Kahn, Seizing the Enigma (London, 2010). YC.2011.a.1687

Frank Carter, The first breaking of Enigma: some of the pioneering techniques developed by the Polish Cipher Bureau (Milton Keynes, 2008). YK.2010.a.35748

 Simon Singh, The Code Book (London, 1999). YC.1999.b.8756

The Enigma Machine on display in the Library (Photo by Clare Kendall)