‘Carry Me Home’- Reattaching to the self: Melodic arrangement in African American spirituals and early 20th century classical compositions
An evocation of emotional memory for the healing of past trauma, separation and loss
Guest blog by Edison Fellow Jonathan Emeruwa
I am hoping to show through my essay the way in which melodic arrangement in certain African American classical music compositions and African American spirituals from the late 19th century have been used by both the artist and the composer as a way to convey the healing of past trauma through the expression of music; the process of remembering and making sense of the emotions being expressed through song. The melodies can serve a therapeutic purpose, which is also inherent in the musical tradition of the African American’s struggle for liberation.
Introduction
I had been fascinated with the music of the black spiritual for a very long time, ever since my early experiences as a boy, hearing gospel and Catholic hymns in my local church as well as being brought up in a Roman Catholic school and experiencing African traditional Igbo music from Nigeria. Of course, besides the traditional spiritual beliefs, Christianity is also a widely practiced religion amongst the Igbo people and gospel songs are an important part of religious practices. Later on, I had become more acquainted with the music of African American spirituals, folk and blues, as well as the impact of the transatlantic slave trade and the way that traditional African music from the continent had greatly influenced these genres.
The idea of loss and expressing sorrowful experiences for reparation in song seemed to be recurrent themes in many of the recordings I had listened to growing up. In regard to the songs of the spirituals, I have been particularly interested in the way that the music of black spirituals had seeped into other Western forms of music, most notably classical, but was concerned how little has been written about this.
After hearing about the wonderful work of the British Library and their Sound Archive, I felt I had to pursue research there and applied for an Edison Fellowship. I was very excited to be able to access recordings from the collections to help begin my investigation.
Starting off
I had decided to start researching into the composers first. I had read about several black composers influenced by the black spirituals from America such as the more widely known William Grant Still. However, I had also heard about the musicians Carlisle and Wellmon who were less known. Classical Curator Jonathan Summers had written a wonderful British Library blog for Black History Month on the African American British duo, which I was able to read. The second resource that I was able to use which was an absolute treasure trove of information was the publication by Bear Family Records ‘Black Europe’, which I was able to access at the British Library. The two books accompanying the recordings had really helped my writing and the incredible curators at the Library, particularly Jonathan Summers, have also been there to guide me in finding the appropriate material. It’s been great to receive this support from the Fellowship; I will now illustrate my findings.
Carlisle and Wellmon
Harry M. Wellmon was born in Shelby North Carolina on the 15 May 1883. As a young child Wellman went to New York City where he made a name for himself as a drum major champion of the world. He had become an MC at the annual concert ball and cakewalk at Harlem River Casino in 1898 and worked for a music publisher where he gained important experiences in this field.
Wellmon’s first song was called ‘Sweet Dreams’ and most likely his first publication in 1903. In 1906 he established himself as a composer and had contributed to the comic operetta ‘King of Sahara’, which opened in London on the 28 May. Since then, he wrote for Edwardian music hall artists and was proclaimed a ‘born genius’ by a report published in ‘Entr’acte’ August 1906.
Later on in his life, Wellmon had formed the duo Carlisle and Wellmon with the pianist George Carlisle who was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota on the 11 March 1883. He had studied piano at the Northwest Conservatory in Chicago and Boston Conservatory. He began his career as a classical pianist later switching to vernacular music and made his way to Britain in September 1908 with the duo Carlisle and Baker. Carlisle and Wellmon were a ragtime and revelry act singing and playing their own compositions. The act had continued touring through 1911 and 1912 and in the autumn of 1912 made several recordings. Four of the six sides recorded had been written by the pair.
The recording that I was most interested in listening to was ‘Why do you Wait for Tomorrow’ (from the Black Europe Collection) the second side to ‘A Prescription for Love.’ ‘Why do you Wait for Tomorrow’ was a joint duet recorded by the pair. Described as a ‘tearjerker’ it is a slow waltz as described in the ‘Black Europe’ book. I found it’s sorrowful and mournful style very reminiscent of the black spiritual tradition of song. I think this is of interest as this is not a song that gets discussed very often. Though this American-born British duo seemed to capture something here, they sing about love ruling the world today and posing the question; Why do you wait for tomorrow? Could they be referring to a specific person, perhaps a love interest, or is the question being posed to the audience? One can only wonder.
'Why do you wait for tomorrow' by Carlisle & Wellmon, 1912
The classical composers R. Nathaniel Dett and Harry Burleigh would make a new concert stage repertoire by applying Western classical techniques to the spiritual. Other composers that were also inspired in this way were William Grant Still, Samuel Coleridge Taylor and Fela Sowande.
William Grant Still
William Grant Still was very much known as the Dean of Afro-American composers and both of his parents were African Americans. He had been brought from a segregated Mississippi to Little Rock, Arkansas. The location was known as a hub for black intellectuals and the famous orator Frederick Douglass had made speeches there. Still moved to Harlem where he worked with WC Handy, playing the oboe. His compositions were ground breaking and it was also the first time an American orchestra had ever played a symphonic work by a black man, being brought up in southern segregated America. His background both as an African American and composer had really intrigued me as well as the ideas behind his great work.
At the British Library I found an absolutely mesmerising and beautiful piece by Still. It had been a while since I listened to his music but after listening to this song, I felt a strong sense of nostalgia and, as a listener, also a sense of determination and resilience of the African American human spirit. The recording in question was his famous composition ‘Afro American Symphony.’ I also thought it would be useful to have some context as well and in addition found an interview where the composer spoke about this work.
Samuel Coleridge Taylor
Samuel Coleridge Taylor was the first black composer from England, born in the year 1875. Having attended the Royal College of Music, his interest came about after having heard the Fisk Jubilee Singers, an African American a capella ensemble established in 1871. His initial work strongly featured African American themes, which was very aligned with the Black Spiritual aesthetic of the time featuring melancholy and uplifting melodies very reminiscent of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, church preaching songs and hymns.
I had decided to listen to a particular recording entitled ‘Danse Negre’. Uplifting, majestic and turbulent, a dance of black consciousness and the African. African American dance and music can be seen as a way of freedom from bondage allowing expression under oppression, to reconnect with one’s homeland and ancestors. There seemed to be a sense of hope and strength to the music, not only in the conveyance of melody, but also the tempo and pacing. I was thinking of the function of musical expression as a conveyer of emotions and feelings.
To this I will draw reference to the works of Theodor Reik a Psychoanalyst in his book The Haunting Melody: Psychoanalytic Experiences in Life and Music. Reik had discussed the associations between an individual’s music and its concealed meaning and how certain types of melodies may exude repetitiveness, which may link to trauma or difficult unprocessed experiences. A very good example of this is in the repetitive blues chords which have roots in spirituals, gospel and folk music which allow the singer a simple melodic framework to express feelings repeatedly, including heartache and sadness through techniques such as call and response, emotionally expressive singing, and shouts and wailing characteristic in African indigenous music.
Fela Sowande
Fela Sowande was a Nigerian composer who had lived in America during his career and was most known for his compositions for organ. He was, perhaps for the first time, able to bring Yoruba culture and influence to the popular Western concert stage. One of his most famous compositions was his African Suite composed in 1955, during the time that Nigeria was still under British colonial rule and, (also symbolically) music for the 1960s Nigerian independence. His influences were also clearly rooted in the Negro Spirituals tradition, which he very much related to the mythologies and traditional folktales of Africa; Yoruba has a very rich history of folklore and folk stories embedded in its traditions and music.
‘Deep River’ Arranged by Frederick Tills
Slaves never let the light go out. Survival meant having steadfast dedication and determination, and most of all, a will to live. Hope eternal, faith always shining, they knew their real home, whilst somewhere over Jordan across a deep river, oh don’t you want to go to that promised land where all is peace. ‘Deep River.
(The introduction to ‘Deep River’ with arrangement by Frederick Tillis).
Arranged by Frederick Tillis from the Symphonic Spirituals and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. This composition, a melancholy song of mourning, loss and longing really encapsulates the recurrent themes and tone of the music of the African American spirituals.
'Deep River' arranged by Frederick Tills
The spirituals
Spirituals is a Christian music associated with African Americans merging African traditions with their experiences of slavery during the transatlantic slave trade. Among some of the themes present in the music are songs of work, sing songs, songs from the plantation in the field which would later evolve into blues and gospel.
It was in the 1870s that African Americans began to present Christian hymns and spirituals on a wide scale in the United States. The most important group of singers to embody the black spirituals at this time were the Jubilee Singers of Fisk University. In my pursuit to discover more about the singers I was recommended to source the book The Story of the Jubilee Singers with their Songs by JBT Marsh, which the British Library were able to provide guidance with.
Black spirituals and the music of the Jubilee Singers of Fisk University
On January 31 1865, through the 13th Amendment passed by Congress, slavery was officially abolished in the United States. Support was given to promote economic upliftment and a drive towards education. In 1866 the American Missionary Association (AMA), a group of abolitionists and religious leaders who sought to provide educational opportunities for formerly enslaved African Americans, founded Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. The early years of Fisk were challenging and the university struggled financially, operating from a simple wooden building. However, with the dedication of its faculty and students, Fisk managed to survive and thrive and the original humble building was replaced.
One of the most significant events in Fisk’s early history was the establishment of the nine-member choral ensemble, the Fisk Jubilee Singers, in 1871. The group was founded primarily to raise funds for the university, and was led by George White, a music professor and the University treasurer. The members consisted of Isaac Dickerson, Ben Holmes, Greene Evans, Thomas Rutling, Ella Shepphard, Maggie Porter, Minnie Tate, Jennie Jackson and Eliza Walker. Together they left for Ohio in 1871, travelling through New York and Connecticut, introducing the music of the black spirituals for the first time. Through their touring they were able to save $20,000 and make a second tour. Over the entire 18 months they were also able to visit Rhode Island, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Maryland and Washington DC. They were also a group that generously donated small profits to victims of the Great Chicago fire of October 1871, despite the hardships they faced whilst starting out.
The group’s Pastor, Henry Bennett, together with George White, decided on the name Jubilee from the book of Leviticus in the Bible. Each fiftieth Pentecost was followed by the year of the Jubilee in which all the slaves would be set free. Because most of the members were newly freed slaves the name seemed to fit the group. Indeed, the singers were for the most part emancipated slaves and had confronted social prejudices reflective of the times they were living in. They also faced injustice throughout their early career, being turned away from hotels and waiting rooms, mistreated by the press and certain audiences. They were at times without the money to buy the necessities, but in less than three years through their singing and music they earnt almost one hundred thousand dollars.
Ministers in the places that the Fisk Jubilee Singers performed felt a sense of proprietary interest in their work and enthusiastically promoted them and provided arrangements for their concerts. This is an important point to note in the work of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, that there seemed to be influences from the wider church communities contributing to their music. It goes without saying that the spiritual traditions of the churches were as much a part of their music as the group and University itself. This should be considered when looking more into the music of the Fisk Jubilee Singers.
Black Christians from slavery in the United States brought the hymns and songs with them forged from their horrific experiences, and these songs were sung and brought overseas to Europe. The transmigration and introduction of the music in Europe also garnered even more support and empathy.
In 1874 the Fisk Jubilee Singers were able to visit Europe for the first time and sung for Queen Victoria, giving them further credibility. Despite the busy schedules, the troupe changed members and brought in a singer called Frederick Jeremiah Loudin. On their 1875 tour in Britain, traveling widely through England Scotland and Wales, Loudin commented on the entire absence of racial prejudice. Their impact globally was significant: by the year 1886 the genre of the black spiritual as redefined by the Fisk Jubilee troupe had been firmly established - a group of a dozen men and women with a pianist singing Christian hymns from the perspective of a black American.
The use of melody in the music of the Fisk Jubilee Singers
In a preface to the music in the book The Story of the Jubilee Singers with their Songs by JBT Marsh the writer Theo F. Seward attempts to give a description of the Fisk Jubilee Singers music and in particular draws attention to their melodies.
‘In giving these melodies to the world in a tangible form, it seems desirable to say a few words about them as judged from a musical standpoint. It is certain that the critic stands completely disarmed in their presence. He must not only recognise their immense power over audiences which include many people of the highest culture but if he be not thoroughly encased in prejudice, he must yield a tribute of admiration on his own part and acknowledge that these songs touch a chord which the most consummate art fails to reach.’
The writer also talks about how the comparisons of their former state of slavery intensifies their music, or in other words how their personal experiences also have a huge bearing on the impact of their music in alongside their melodies. Hope is also a strong theme, according to the writer, of race and upliftment which occupies the mind of the listener within their music. Of course, the Fisk Jubilee Singers encapsulate the spirit of the African American at the time; their music presented their unique narrative largely unknown to the audience, but through their songs they had the power to emotionally affect the listener.
A short analysis of the songs of the Fisk Jubilee Singers
Harry Johnston wrote in the book The Story of my Life in 1923 that the melodies were Methodist hymns of the 18th century of English or French origin. This however takes away from the important quality which is the way these hymns were sung and how they were performed; there was more to this interpretation than simply relating it to musical historical theory. In the Times article entitled ‘Bright Mansions’ published in 1899, there was an interesting description: ‘Negro invention during slavery days was sad wistful, reminders of the land of glory of bright mansions beyond the grave or very materialistic definitions of the patterns from death to life over the river and of the sober joys experienced in paradise.’ This is a very good breakdown of what will be explored further on.
In The Story of the Jubilee Singers with their Songs Theo F. Seward was also one of the first people to try and analyse their music in depth. Their music is out of the ordinary, definitely for the times, and not in line with the music being composed at that time. These are songs that are not taught or tutored. There is a strong sense of community in the case of the Jubilee Singers through the religious services and meetings that influence the music borne again out of the experiences of the African American.
The writer uses the terms such as ‘childlike receptive minds of these unfortunates’ which is dated now. I think what he is getting at is the earlier emotional state and suffering endured by the African American which links into their trauma of slavery and working through the emotional pain channeled through their music. He also mentions the inspiration given most likely through the gift of song by an ever-watchful father. I believe this doesn’t just relate to the leaders of the Church but also to something deeper internally and spiritually - inner resilience, self-belief and a spiritual faith in an Almighty God or ancestors. Perhaps it may be useful to investigate Jungian archetypes which, can also shed an interesting light; in Jungian theory the father archetype represents an authority figure, protector and provider which can also be associated with self-control and empowerment. Jung also sees this archetype present in all individuals. Undergoing the hardships, suffering and oppression present in slavery, I think Jung’s description of the archetype embodies the hopes of the black spiritual.
The writer also gives an interesting analogy, ‘Quickening the pulse of life to keep them from falling into a hopeless apathy.’ Emotionally this illustrates the healing function of the song’s pulse and rhythm as life giving and preserving; in Freudian theory Thanatos represents the death drive and Eros the Life drive. Thanatos relates to entropy or the idea that systems will eventually reach its lowest point in sharp contrast with the concept of Eros, the spread of life. According to Sigmund Freud these states are in a state of tension. Both states are present at the same time. Freud had done clinical studies on these drives and observed that people who experience trauma or a traumatic event tend to recreate it. People can hold an unconscious wish to die but the desire to live counters that wish. Again, I return to the writer’s analogy and the psychic psychological states that lead to a sense of hope and upliftment present in the music of the black spirituals.
Seward attempts to analyse the technicality of the melodies, again drawing attention to the pulse and rhythm, highlighting the complexities, originality and strangeness of it. The triple time (or three-part measure) according to the writer was rare in the music of the Fisk Jubilee Singers. He relates it to the swaying of the body movement, the tapping of the foot, for dance and music in African traditions are largely inseparable. These movements accompany the singing movements, the body and the song are in syncopation as Seward mentions: ‘Irregularities invariably conform to the higher law of the perfect rhythmic flow.’
Interestingly, Seward notes that almost half of the melodies are written in the same scale as Scottish music, with the seventh and forth tones left out (the Pentatonic scale or mode). Early Greek music is also said to have been written in this scale too, leading him to ponder if it were the language of nature or in an older alphabet than the diatonic scale. These descriptions indicate that the music for the writer may be tapping into the ancient past and all its mystery.
Seward also observes the importance of the chorus, or the refrain sung after the verses, and the importance of this characteristic in hymns. However, I think that it is a way of returning back to and re-centring the song and also both the singer and listener, returning to the idea of memory; the chorus is a part rooted in remembrance perhaps as a way of reminding oneself of the past.
This is encapsulated beautifully in the song ‘Nobody Knows the Trouble I see Lord’: Nobody knows the trouble I see Lord, nobody knows the trouble I see, nobody knows the trouble I see Lord, Nobody knows like Jesus.
'Nobody knows the trouble I see' by the Fisk Jubilee Singers, 1935
It also emphasises repetition, repetitive words and prayer. I like to think of the expression ‘learning prayers by heart,’ - we learn prayers by trying to commit them to memory, we say these prayers over and over and can express these prayers through the heart. We give our hearts to Jesus; we give our love to Jesus.
I also think of the idea of particular experiences and memories being painful, with regards to trauma; suppression is a form of repression as mentioned by Sigmund Freud in 1892. This is the conscious process of pushing unwanted thoughts and memories out of awareness. Much of the trauma experienced in slavery is too much to bear and comprehend or imagine, both the mental and physical pain endured. To try to express these feelings with words alone cannot convey the intensity but music is more able to do this. It is no wonder that the music has such power, the power to articulate emotions buried deep and to bring them out.
I return to what Theodor Reik suggested, the concealed meaning in the melody and the inherent repetition, which is an important component of the music of Black Spirituals, gospel and classical composers who are inspired by and adopt a similar template in their music. In a sense, the music was used to convey and process traumatic emotions, and the healing was through the music itself.
John Bowlby, in the book Attachment first published in 1969, says that we have a human instinct to form attachments with people throughout our life. Bowlby goes on to say that trying to escape grief is akin to denying one’s attachment to that person. In a sense, by doing this we are lying to ourselves and denying reality and so it is very important to be able to accept and go through the process of grief.
In the music of the black spirituals, we see a collective expression of the trauma of slavery that very much incorporates the pain of separation and loss. This goes even further; the loss of self-identity, family and ancestry, culture and religion are all aspects of this grief. In the music of the Fisk Jubilee Singers and the black spirituals this is also unprocessed grief - the singers share together and the listener can identify with. The listener may not understand the context to which the music may come from, but are enraptured with the power of the emotions.
Feelings, as painful as they can be, are released and expressed through the music, and the listener is able to feel the emotional intensity so both musician and audience undergo a process of healing by being more in touch with their emotions and feelings. Jung says that ‘our emotions affect us and happen to us’. The process of ‘individuation’ as Jung described, is a search for wholeness within the human psyche. The process of trying to reach a state of wholeness and making sense of the fragmentation caused by the trauma of slavery, the lost parts of one’s being, is such a strong theme in the melodies of the black spirituals, and in particular the Fisk Jubilee Singers. The melodies centre around a juxtaposition of notes sounding both sadness and joy. Can sadness and joy exist at the same time? Perhaps in the mind of the black spiritual they can coexist, for one can’t exist without the other.
A short conclusion
I’d like to return to the idea of ‘cultural trauma’ - the idea that one’s cultural worldview has been destabilised. Ron Eyerman in his book Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of the African American Identity explores the formation of the African American identity through the idea of cultural trauma and slavery. He sees the trauma as a collective memory and pervasive remembrance that grounds a person’s sense of itself. I would argue that cultural trauma can be expressed through the arts and, as it occupies the collective memory, the medium of arts are universally expressed through the collective dreams of music, folklore and other mediums.
Music becomes that medium for collective dreaming, for there is something about the music of the black spirituals embodied in the music of Fisk Jubilee Singers that brings about the collective expression of trauma work that not only affects the singer themselves but also the listener. This is music that speaks to us as much as it speaks to them; we can all relate to the experiences from the painful trauma to the joyful sense of overcoming the traumatic experiences through our own personal journeys. There is something in the music that is universal, an ability to remember our humanity.
A special thank you
I would like to say a big thank you to the British Library, Classical Curator Jonathan Summers, and the other fantastic staff members that I’ve been able to meet on my fellowship at the British Library. It has certainly been a challenging year for the Library but I’ve felt much support throughout my visits. It has been an absolute joy, as well as a remarkable and memorable time.